Ethics in Production Management - 4. Process Issues :Genetically Modified Products
Genetic modification, also called genetic engineering, is the process of changing the DNA of an organism, such as a bacterium or plant or animal. These changes can be as small as inserting or deleting a few DNA ‘letters’ in the organism’s genome (its complete set of DNA) to adding a new gene from a different species.
Genetic modification is not the same as cloning. Cloning creates an exact copy of all or part of an organism’s DNA, while genetic modification makes changes to existing DNA to create a new, modified version of the genome.
No corporate activity today is more controversial than the production and sale of genetically modified organisms (GMOs; another common abbreviation is GM for genetically modified foods). One company in particular, Monsanto, has become so closely associated with GMOs that it has become the target of worldwide criticism and a number of public protests.
In 2011, the percentage of GMOs in world production stood at 83% for cotton, 75% for soya beans, 32% for corn and 26% for rapeseed. This production is the preserve of 29 countries, mainly the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India and Canada. Meanwhile, cultivation of GMOs remains forbidden in over thirty nations.
In 2015, a majority of European Union countries decided to block the cultivation of eight new types of GMO pending new data and approval from regulatory bodies. Nonetheless, the European Union remains the greatest user of GMOs: 30 million tonnes of genetically modified soya beans and corn are required for animal feed every year.
In most cases, farmers who use GMO technologies do so to increase productivity, either by increasing production yields (minimising pest-related losses), or financial returns (reducing labour or the use of specific phytosanitary products). In 2014, an analysis of 147 studies carried out around the world over the previous 20 years stated that “on average, GM technology adoption has reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop yields by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%” (Klumper, 2014).
Food is cultural, social and deeply personal, so it’s no surprise that modifications to the way food is produced, distributed and consumed often lead to ethical debates.
Developments in the genetic modification (GM) of foods and crops has resulted in a raft of controversies.
Ethics can help here. While science determines whether we can safely modify the genetic makeup of certain organisms, ethics asks whether we should.
Consumers' choices in the market cannot be ignored: they are not forced to buy something if they choose not to. If consumers decide not to buy a product, the associated production processes will simply wither away. Given the refusal of many consumers in certain countries to buy current GMOs, producers of GM crops are reconsidering their production decisions and the agrifood industry is rapidly restructuring, and even changing the thrust of its research and development efforts, to take this response into account.
GMO | Genetic modification | Source of gene | Purpose of genetic modification | Primary beneficiaries |
Maize | Insect resistance | Bacillus thuringiensis | Reduced insect damage | Farmers |
Soybean | Herbicide tolerance | Streptomyces spp. | Greater weed control | Farmers |
Cotton | Insect resistance | Bacillus thuringiensis | Reduced insect damage | Farmers |
Escherichia coli K 12 | Production of chymosin or rennin | Cows | Use in cheese-making | Processors and consumers |
Carnations | Alteration of colour | Freesia | Production of different flower varieties | Retailers and consumers |
Issues related to GM products needs to be examined in detail before releasing for human consumption.
Does genetic integrity of organisms in the ecosystem have an intrinsic value that humankind ought not change? If we restrict genetic engineering to intra-species changes, our work would mimic the natural ways that organisms evolve changes in genetic structure, eliminating this ethical concern. Other ethical issues raised address the telos (purpose) of an organism.
Some criticisms on the unregulated entry of GMOs into the environment and food supply include environmental, health, and economic risks. Some environmental risks include: non-target organism effects like killing beneficial insects and soil biota, and the development of insect and weed resistance, necessitating more powerful pesticides. The health risks include: introduction of new allergens, toxins, antibiotic resistance, nutritional and reproductive problems, and cancer. The economic risks include: market loss to farmers; lower prices; lower crop yields; crop failure; contamination of the gene pool of existing crop plants; and corporate monopolization over the food supply through GMO patent protection.
In 2003-04, India was the world’s third largest cotton producer and seventh biggest exporter of cotton in the world. Overall, India was a net importer of cotton. With the introduction of BT-cotton, India in a decade rose to become not only biggest producer of cotton bales but also the 2nd biggest exporter.
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