Classification of Theories of Ethics

Three different ways of broad classification of Theories of Ethics are  described below: first, classification based on central theme of the theories followed by the subject area dealt with the respective theories. The third one is based on the general category of consequential and non-consequential  theories. 

A.   There are several type of classifications for theories in Ethics. One such classification based on the central theme considered by the philosophers is as follows:

 

1.      Teleological Ethical Theories

2.      Deontological Ethical Theories

3.      Virtue Ethical Theories

4.      System Development Ethical Theories

B.     Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas: Metaethics, Normative ethics, and Applied ethics. 

Meta-ethics is concerned with the theoretical meaning of morality and ethical principles, i.e. what we understand when we talk about what is right or wrong.

The term “meta” means after or beyond, and, consequently, the notion of metaethics involves a removed, or bird’s eye view of the entire project of ethics. Metaethics is the study of the origin andmeaning of ethical concepts. When compared to normative ethics and applied ethics, the field of metaethics is the least precisely defined area of moral philosophy. It covers issues from moral semantics to moral epistemology. Two issues, though, are prominent: (1) metaphysical issues concerning whether morality exists independently of humans, and (2) psychological issues concerning the underlying mental basis of our moral judgments and conduct.

·         Metaethics investigates where our moral values, language, and principles come from and what they mean; it is concerned with “what is morality?” rather than “what is moral?” 

Meta-ethics is related more to the study of ethical theory itself. Here the interest is in evaluating moral and ethical theories and systems. For example, moral relativism is a meta-ethical theory because it interprets discussions around ethics; a question asked within moral relativism is “is ethics culturally relative?” Evans and Macmillan (2014, p.27) define meta-ethics as “theories of ethics concerned with the moral concepts, theories, and the meaning of moral language. Pollock (2007, p.6) further defines meta-ethics as “a discipline that investigates the meaning of ethical systems and whether they are relative or are universal, and are self-constructed or are independent of human creation.”

There are generally three philosophical approaches, or what may be considered the science, to ethical reasoning:

1. Utilitarian ethics
2. Deontological ethics
3. Virtue ethics

a comparison of definitions, application and pros&cons of these theories are given below

Philosophers differ onhow to define ethics, morality or justice. Aristotle’s approach was to focus on virtue that leads to the good life. Bentham and Mill thought utilitarianism was the proper way to define ethics to give maximum pleasure or good to the most people. Kant thought ethics and morality depended more upon the moral intentions of a person’s actions which should be universally accepted as ethical, and less on the consequences of the action.

·         Normative ethics deals with the content of moral judgments i.e. determining the moral course of action and includes the criteria for what is right or wrong, good or bad, kind or evil, etc. Normative ethics investigates the moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. Theories within normative ethics include utilitarianism, consequentialism, contractualism, virtue ethics, and more.

Normative theories tell us not only what we ought to do, but also why we do things that in some instances may appear counterintuitive to what we think an ethical decision would be. Such theories are often called ethical systems because they provide a system that allows people to determine ethical actions that individuals should take (Pollock, 2007). Evans and Macmillan (2014, p.27) define normative ethics as “theories of ethics that are concerned with the norms, standards or criteria that define principles of ethical behaviour.” The most common examples of normative ethical theories are utilitarianism, Kantian duty-based ethics (deontology), and divine command theory.  These systems are used by individuals to make decisions when confronted with ethical dilemmas.

There are three major theories, based on our beliefs about moral obligations, rights, and justice and they are applied in a number of issues concerning rights and obligations of employees, employee relations, protection of employees and consumers and the responsibility of corporation to the firm at large.

Teleological Theories

Deontological Theories

Virtue Ethics theory

 

·         Applied ethics is concerned with the actions which a person is obliged to perform in a particular situation. Applied ethics seeks to applyphilosophical tools to examine specific controversial issues and providepractical solutions to moral problems

Applied ethics describes how we apply normative theories to specific issues, usually related to work or belonging to an organization; for example, policies and procedures of organizations or ethical codes of outlaw bikers versus ethical codes of police officers. Evans and Macmillan (2014, p.27) define applied ethics as “theories of ethics concerned with the application of normative ethics to particular ethical issues.” An example is knowing and practising the code of ethics for BC Corrections as an employee of BC Corrections or following the British Columbia Police Code of Ethics as a police officer.

 

C.   Consequentialist vs. Non-Consequentialist theories of ethics

There are two broad categories of ethical theories concerning the source of value: consquentialist and non-consequentialist. Before proceeding further, one needs to have basic idea of what is the concept of value .

Consequentialism

The Normative Moral theory (also know as 'Teleological Ethics') which maintains the obligation (or 'rightness') of an action is determined by the consequences which follow from the act. If an action produces good consequences, it is considered a 'right' action.

The most important question for a consequentialist to answer is, What is a good consequence and for whom is it good?

Different attempts to answer this question give rise to distinct versions of Consequentialism:

 

1.     Hedonism - whatever brings me the most pleasure

2.     Egoism - whatever brings me the most happiness:

a.      Psychological Egoism - everyone (as a matter of fact) always acts in their own best interest

b.     Ethical Egoism - everyone should always act in heir own best interest

                                                       i.            Individual Ethical Egoism - everyone ought to act so as to promote my well being

                                                     ii.            Universal Ethical Egoism - everyone ought to act so as to promote their own well being

c.      Utilitarianism - whatever brings about the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people:

                                                       i.            Act Utilitarianism - an action is 'good' just in case it brings about the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people

                                                     ii.            Rule Utilitarianism - a rule is 'good' just in case it brings about the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people

Normative ethics: addresses “first-order” questions about our moral lives, questions about what morality requires/permits us to do, and what is morally valuable. E.g. should we be vegetarians? Is euthanasia permissible? Is it (morally) good to devote oneself to a life of pleasure?

Belief is an acceptance that something exists or is true, especially one without proof

Values are  are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another. They serve as a guide for human behavior. Generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values that they are raised with. People also tend to believe that those values are “right” because they are the values of their particular culture.

Virtue is conformity of one's life and conduct to moral and ethical principles;

–     uprightness; rectitude. chastity; virginity

It is a particular moral excellence; a good or admirable quality or property: the virtue of knowing one's weaknesses.

Virtues are innate good qualities or morals within people. In this way, they are characteristics of people but they do not define organisational or collective culture. In other words, values reflect what is acceptable in terms of culture, but virtues reflect individual human characteristics.

Virtue

Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do the good. Virtues allow a person not only to perform good acts to give the best of himself/herself in every thing. A good person directs his/herself towards the good with all his/her sensory and spiritual powers. A virtuous person stands firm in trying moments

The choice of good acts produces virtue and virtues itself is the source of choosing to do good acts. Good habits make virtues and bad habits make the vices. ( Virtues= good; Vice= bad). Virtues are therefore necessary for a moral life.

Virtues govern actions, give one a firm and good attitude, perfect the intellect, control passions, and generally make it easy for one to enjoy leading a morally good life. Virtues are acquired by human effort ( they are the seed and fruit of morally good acts)

•      Classifications of Virtues.

•      Cardinal Virtues/ moral virtues: Main/Major all other virtues originate from them.

•      Prudence: Right reason-ability to discern true good from every circumstance.

•      Justice: Fairness; promote equity.

•      Fortitude: Firmness in difficulty-constant pursuit of good

•      Resistance to temptations

•      Ability to overcome obstacles.

•      Temperance: Moderates attraction of pleasures.

•      Super natural virtues are  Charity, Hope and Faith

•      Intellectual virtues are  Wisdom, Science and  Art

The four major Moral Values/Virtues are as follows:

1.     Prudence-is the practical wisdom in living life, where it can be acquired through experience and reflection.

2.     Temperance –is the appropriateness in the use of passions or desires. It is the quality of character that is dependable because one’s desires have been disciplined to respond to the truly good.

3.     Fortitude –is the courage needed to overcome obstacles when one grows.

4.     Justice –is the fairness and equality in dealing with others.

 

St. Thomas Acqinas, a medieval theologian and economic thinker maintained that Virtue is that type of habit which enables a person to live peacefully and reasonably well in this world and also that ideal Christian habit  which will ensure the Union with God.  These ideal habits are faith, hope and charity.

 

Theological/supernatural virtues are given below :

1.     Faith –is the given grace from God.

2.     Hope –is the advantages of the human will towards final union with God.

3.   Love –is the experience and expression of the strong desire for those persons or things in which one takes a particulars joy or delight.

 

Intrinsic vs. Instrumental value

Something is said to have intrinsic value if it is good ``in and of itself,'' i.e., not merely as a means for acquiring something else. Something is said to have instrumental value if it is good because it provides the means for acquiring something else of value.

A consequentialist theory of value judges therightness or wrongness of an action based on the consequences that action has. The most familiar example would be utilitarianism--``that action is best that produces the greatest good for the greatest number'' (Jeremy Bentham).

A non-consequentialist theory of value judges the rightness or wrongness of an action based on properties intrinsic to the action, not on its consequences.

Libertarianism--People should be free to do as they like as long as they respect the freedom of others to do the same.

Contractarianism--No policy that causes uncompensated harm on anyone is permitted (Pareto safety). 

 

Value theory is concerned with theoretical questions about value and goodness of all varieties, questions that often cross the boundaries between normative ethics and the metaethical. It asks how and why people value something, be it a person, idea, or object; thus both moral and natural goods are equally relevant to value theory.

The principles underlying  the Non-Consequentialist  theorems are

1.     Rights Principle

The Morally Correct action is the one that you have a moral right to do. All people have natural right to life, liberty and property and everyone is morally permitted to do anything they wish , provided that their actions do not violate the rights of other people. Rights are entitlements

Eg: Right o free speech, Right to freedom of religion, Right to Education

 

2.     Distributive Justice (fairness) Principle

The morally correct action is the one that produces a fair distribution of resources (benefits and burdens). Each person receives resources according to to how much they deserve (in terms of contribution, effort or merit). People who are similar in relevant respects should be treated similarly. People who differ in relevant respects should be treated differently. Equal wages for similar work is considered good where as  differentiation based on color, sex etc are injustice

 

3.     Ethics of Care

The morally correct action is the one that appropriately cares for the people with whom you have relationships.

Eg: love toward son or daughter Vs. love towards a stranger

Eg: Care for your own needs)

Family

Friends

Employees

Customers

Stockholders

 

4.     Virtue Ethics

Virtue Principle

The morally correct action is the one that displays good moral virtues(moral excellence), and that does not display bad moral vices(activities /specified form of evil doing)

•      Eg: compassion(kindness)

•      Conscientiousness(care)

•      Cooperativeness

•      Courage

•      Fairness

•      Generosity(the trait of being willing to give your money or time)

•      Honesty

•      Industriousness(persevering determination to perform  task)

•      Loyalty

•      Self-control

•      Self-reliance(confidence)

•      Tolerance

 

Virtue Ethics

Virtue is a moral behaviour of a person while value entail an acceptable moral disposition in an organization or a cultural group. It may seems synonymous but values encompasses virtue

Ethical theories are usually divided into the three big groups. Very widespread is the division into teleological, deontological and virtue ethics theories (Boatright, 1997; Fisher, 2003; Jonsson, 2011; Belak, Rozman, 2012).

Ethical systems can generally be broken down into three categories: deontological, teleological and virtue-based ethics. The first two are considered deontic or action-based theories of morality because they focus entirely on the actions which a person performs.

When actions are judged morally right based upon their consequences, we have teleological or consequentialist ethical theory. When actions are judged morally right based upon how well they conform to some set of duties, we have a deontological ethical theory, which is common for theist religions.

Whereas these first two systems focus on the question "What should I do?," the third asks an entirely different question: "What sort of person should I be?" With this, we have a virtue-based ethical theory — it doesn't judge actions as right or wrong but rather the character of the person doing the actions. The person, in turn, makes moral decisions based upon which actions would make one a good person.

Role of Virtue Ethics in Business Context

Virtue ethics plays a vital role in the world of business, because it determined the moral behaviour of a person in the organisation. A person with a high degree of virtues behaves well in the organisation and makes ethical choices for his or her action

Principles of those virtues are:  Courage, Wisdom, Temperance, Fairness, Integrity, and Consistency. Specifically those are moral virtues.

Possession of such virtues principles by a worker ( a manager) in the organisation helps in achieving the organisational goals. Thus, increases the tendency of worker’s performance in terms of, decision making, planning, organising and controlling various resources in the organisation in an ethical manner.