Teleological Ethical Theories
Teleological ethics, (teleological from Greek telos, “end”; logos, “science”), theory of morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an end to be achieved.
Also known as consequentialist ethics,
it is opposed to deontological ethics (from the Greek deon, “duty”), which holds that
the basic standards for an action’s being morally right are independent of the
good or evil generated.
In Consequentialism, the rightness of actions is determined solely by
their consequences.
• Strengths:
1. They agree to much of our moral reasoning
2. Teleological theories provide relatively precise and objective method
for moral decision making. E.g. Goodness of consequences can be measured and
compared.
• Weaknesses
1. Ordinarily our moral reasoning is teleological, but some are
non-teleological.
2. We have an obligation to keep our promise. Example: If we promise to
store food for a person, it would be wrong to give it away to hungry beggars,
because it would have better consequences.
Many philosophers (Jeremy Bentham) have argued that the moral rightness
of an action is determined solely by its results or consequence.
If the results are good , then the act is right. If the results are bad
, then that act is wrong. It can be further divided into two more approaches :
A: Egoism B: Utilitarianism
These are examined in detail below:
A. Ethical
Egoism
The ethical
egoism is a teleological theory that posits, an action is good if it produces
or is likely to produce results that maximize the person’s
self-interest as defined by him, even at the expense of others. It is
based on the notion that it is always moral to promote one’s own good, but at times
avoiding the personal interest could be a moral action too. This makes the
ethical egoism different from the psychological egoism which
holds that people are self-centered and self-motivated and perform actions only
with the intention to maximize their personal interest without helping others,
thereby denying the reality of true altruism (sacrificing one’s personal
interest in the welfare of others).
Egoism(Consequentialist )
According to egoism we care for others because it is in our best self interest. “ I am not required to act in the interest of others, but I should if that is the only way to promote my own self interest”. Example… Providing more and more facilities to your employees does not mean that you are caring for your employees, but you want them to be more productive(profit).
Egoists use their self interest as the standard for measuring the actions rightness.
Egoism(Utilitarianism)
Utilitarianism Proposes that an action is right if it produces the most
utilities(benefits) for all persons affected by the action (including the
person performing the act). Example: Is it right to let one patient die in
order to harvest his organs and perhaps save five lives?
Utilitarianism: Holds that actions and policies should be evaluated on
the basis of the “benefits” and “costs” they will impose on society. In any
situation the right action or policy is the one that will produce the greatest
net benefits and less cost.
Note: Benefits here means happiness and satisfaction or monetary
benefits.
Example: The
government may appropriate private property for public use, usually with
compensation to the owner. Thus the government may legally purchase your house
from you to widen the highway- even if you don’t want to sell the house or want
more money than the government is willing to pay. The public interest is served
at your private expense. Is this just?
What is ethical is that which produces good consequences to the actor.(
hedonists/ Thomas Hobbes)
Analysis
• Is it possible to avoid pain?
• Foregoing sensual pleasure to enjoy higher
pleasure; postpone the enjoyment of pleasure
• Pleasure generalized; sacrifice, duty,
generosity.. Etc
Nicollo Machiavelli (1532) in the Novel ” the Prince” presented rationalization
of war which later came to be known as”Machiavelinism” . ‘The ends justify the means’ is the ethical
position moral agents (people/organisations) ought to do what is in their own.
B. Utilitarianism ( Jeremy Bentham & Stuart Mill)
Utilitarianism,
says that the right thing to do in any situation is whatever will “do the most
good” (that is, produce the best outcomes) taking into consideration the
interests of all concerned parties;
Using the principle of utility,(Maximizing the Good) Bentham found
pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world.
Four Theses of Utilitarianism
• Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is determined solely
by their consequences.
• Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act produces pleasure. Hedonism is
the thesis that pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek and that we
should seek.
• Maximalism : A right action produces the greatest good consequences and the least
bad.
• Universalism: The consequences to be considered are those of everyone
affected, and everyone equally.
Man is governed naturally by pain and pleasure. Actions and policies
should be evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they have on
society. Correct actions produce greatest net benefits or lowest net costs. Greatest
happiness/good for the greatest number.
People affected by actions are stakeholders of the action; therefore businesses should consider all people affected by their businesses as stakeholders in the business.
Essentials of Utility
• Maximizing good
• Theory of value: standard of goodness: intrinsic
values- satisfaction of desires- attainment of autonomy-achievement of deep
personal relationships
• Consequentialism; produce the best utilitarian
outcome
• Impartiality/ Universalism
Analysis
• Is it possible to determine pleasure for others?
• Is morality for the majority always right?
• Can lead to radical actions, infanticide,
exterminate sufferers .. Assisted suicide( euthanasia)
Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory
• Principle of Utility: The
best action is that which produces the greatest happiness and/or reduces pain.
• Greatest Happiness: We
ought to do that which produces the greatest happiness and least pain for the
greatest number of people
Two Types of Utilitarianism
• Rule : An action is right if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the
general acceptance of which would produce the greatest balance of pleasure over
pain for the greatest number. (John Stuart Mill)
• Act : An Action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of
pleasure over pain for the greatest number. (Jeremy Bentham)
Bentham’s theory can be divided into 3 parts viz..,
1. Hedonic Utilitarianism
2. The Principle of Utility
3. The Utility of Hedonic Calculus
All types of pleasure can be measured by same scale. Pleasures can be
compared quantitatively as there is no
difference between them. Bentham once said: ”Quantity of pleasure being equal,
push-pin ( a child’s game) is as good as poetry.” What is good or bad for each
person is a matter for each person to decide by following hedonic(felicific)
calculus.
The Hedonic Calculus
The felicific calculus is an algorithm formulated by utilitarian
philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1747–1832) for calculating the
degree or amount of pleasure that a specific action is likely to cause.
The felicific calculus could, in principle at least, determine the moral
status of any considered act.
The algorithm is also known as the utility calculus,
the hedonistic calculus and the hedonic calculus
Hedonic Calculus is democratic as it counts for one and nobody for more
than one. It is Egalitarian (Classless) because ‘no one person’s pleasure is
greater than another’s’. In keeping with enlightenment thinking, the Hedonic
calculator was a rational and scientific way to measure pleasure. Bentham
claimed that goodness could be empirically(through experience)proven.
John Stuart Mill
Mill agreed with Bentham in emphasising that a persons’ well being is of
the utmost importance. Mill also agreed with the utility principle but had an
issue with the quantitative element.
Mill developed a system of higher and lower pleasures. To pursue
pleasures of the intellect were ‘higher’ than, say, the pursuits for pleasures
of the body. He wanted to reformulate the utilitarian theory to reflect the
fact that pleasures are not all of equal value. He also wanted to take human
nature into account.
What is morally good is that which will bring about the ‘greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people’. Morality of actions should be
judged on their consequences only .So, the morality of an action is relative to
the context / situation in which it is done
There are no absolute moral laws. This means that the same action can be
right or wrong depending on the circumstances. They are both interested in
developing rational methods of devising moral guidelines .They both assume that
the aim of morality is to benefit humanity .They make no assumptions or claims
about any moral authority above humanity (God or absolute moral law)
Their arguments are not grounded in any metaphysical claims about the
nature of morality .They argue that individuals can often make decisions for
themselves.
Differences between Bentham and Mill
Bentham wrote in the late 18th Century, Mill wrote in the mid 19th
Century. The social and political context in which they wrote was different.The
differences are rooted in the fact that Mill’s Utilitarianism was a development
of Bentham’s.
Both thought that the moral value of an act was determined by the
pleasure it produced. Bentham considered only quantity of
pleasure, but Mill considered both quantity and quality of
pleasure. ... For Mill, higher pleasures are more valuable than
lower pleasures, because of their "intrinsic superiority"
Bentham was an ‘Act Utilitarian’...whereas... Mill was a ‘Rule Utilitarian’ .An Act Utilitarian makes a
utilitarian judgment about each act individually
A Rule Utilitarian will adopt general rules about the kinds of actions
that tend to produce happiness i.e. ‘Don’t be racist’. These will make decision
making easier and may prevent injustices. The rules also safeguard against
actions that would normally be considered immoral, being justified on
utilitarian grounds.
Pragmatism
•
There is no room for absolutism; ethical
standards change according to their usefulness or practicability and their
ability to produce good effect.
•
Good actions are those that work,
profitable, or have practical consequences, help solve a problem, and produce
positive results.
•
Analysis
– No
common Morality
– One
can not be certain of the consequences.
Feminist
Consequentialism - Caro Gilligan/ Ethics of Care
Men
use logic and rules/ laws to arrive at moral decisions. They generalize
morality while Women see morality as being entailed in communication and
relationships. Morality is particular
Men
see themselves as guilty for doing something wrong while women hold themselves
responsible for not doing something to prevent the hurt.
Womenchange rules in order to preserve relationships while men abide by rules and
see relationships as replaceable.
Therefore
actions that are right are those that do not break up relationships, hurt other
peoples feelings; and vise versa.
Feminist Ethics, which is a complex set of interrelated perspectives that
emphasize interpersonal concerns such as caring, interdependence, and the
ethical requirements of particular relationships. Such concerns are
traditionally identified with women, but Feminist Ethics should not be thought
of as a theory only for women.
Eudaimonism
Eudaimonism (or Eudaemonism
or Eudaimonia) is a moral philosophy that defines right action as that which
leads to the "well-being" of the individual, thus holding
"well-being" as having essential value.
Eudaimonia
is a Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness' or 'welfare'; however, more
accurate translations have been proposed to be 'human flourishing, prosperity'
and 'blessedness'.
The
literal definition of happiness according to the contemporary dictionary is “the
feeling of being pleased or happy“.
It
is nothing but a state of contentment or a positive mood brought about by
thoughts or feelings in response to positive stimuli.
Eudaimonism
is a teleological theory which posits, that an action is good if it results in
the fulfillment of goals along with the welfare of the human beings. In
other words, the actions are said to be fruitful if it promotes or tends to
promote the fulfillment of goals constitutive of human nature and its
happiness.
Suppose
manager enforce employee training and knowledge standards at work, which are natural
components of human happiness.
Thus,
a moral theory that maintains that the rightness or wrongness of actions solely
depends on their consequences is called as a teleological theory.
Application
of Utilitarian Theory
•
The decision at Coventry during WWII.
– The
decision was made not to inform the town that they would be bombed.
•
The Ford Pinto case: A defective vehicle
would sometimes explode when hit.
– The
model was not recalled and repaired by Ford because they felt it was cheaper to
pay the liability suits than to recall and repair all the defective cars.
•
Utilitarianism make it appealing as a
standard for decision making in business and non-business organizations.
Utilitarianism provides a clear and straightforward basis for formulating
policies.
•
By utilitarian standards, an
organizational policy, decision or action is good if it promotes the general
welfare.
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